By a British Act of Parliament, Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960. Demanding immediate self-government, the Action Group was opposed by the Northern Peoples Congress (NPC), which was composed largely of northerners and headed by several leaders, including Abubakar Tafawa Balewa. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdividedNorthern, Western and Eastern regions. (This was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time.) Webster, Boahen and Idowu are of the opinion that the conquest of Africa was very simple and that it was carried out with ease. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. The Colonial Era (1882-1960) British colonialism began under the pretense of policing the slave trade. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. Decolonization - Jan C. Jansen 2019-06-11 The end of colonial rule in Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean was one of the most In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Other European powers acknowledged Britain's dominance over the area in the 1885 Berlin Conference. Nigeria: ColonizationKatie Graham. African resistance to colonial rule began with A) The arrival of the Europeans on the continent in the late 19th century B) The end of World War II C) . [11], By the 1880s, the National African Company became the dominant commercial power, increasing from 19 to 39 stations between 1882 and 1893. The discussion of pragmatic resistance in Africa comes full circle with the former Portuguese colonies, South Africa, and Kenya. rebellion. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. The Kikuyu people of Kenya, like most Africans, were laborers with the women doing most work at home while the men found work across the country. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British Colonial Office in London. Nigeria's first nationalist movements appeared in the 1920s, and resistance to colonial rule grew over the next three decades. The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. opposed early self-rule for colonial Nigeria on the ground of perceived domination by the southerners. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF Nigeria Regiment.[62]. [73] The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including, travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households. In some instances, however, a double allegianceto the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administrationwas maintained. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. It was guerrilla warfare in the case of the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya (1952-60) and Zimbabwe's war of independence (1965-79); it was all . In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the British Parliament at Westminster and promulgated in Nigeria. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. With the exception of Brandenburg-Prussia's short-lived attempt to gain a foothold on the West African coast and to participate in the 17th-century transatlantic slave trade, German colonialism began only in the 1880s. The large companies that subsequently opened depots in the delta cities and in Lagos were as ruthlessly competitive as the delta towns themselves and frequently used force to compel potential suppliers to agree to contracts and to meet their demands. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter. For this objective, the Company chose to administer the African inhabitants of the Niger Sudan through their traditional rulers and their political institutions. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. September 24, 2021 at 9:40pm by jones.7592. The British turned to Persia for oil.[83]. Nigeria is a country in West Africa and was colonized by the British in 1884 during a slave trade (Alme). This is what happened in 1929 when Igbo and Ibibio market women in Owerri and Calabar (Nigeria) made war against warrant chiefs and colonial authorities over issues of taxation and colonial administration. [10], Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labor. In 1929, this incident in Nigeria later became one of the reasons for the fight against colonial rule in Africa A) The Nigerian Oil crisis B) The Aba Women's Revolt C) . In the Northern Region, the colonial government took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule. Two tiers of government emerged, central and local. . To establish settled government in the newly won districts; To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and. [54] Olivier was a member of the Fabian Society and a friend of George Bernard Shaw. An example was that at Onitsha, where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. They never were able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. In an era of globalization, leaders of "recognized" nations often discuss the development of indigenous resources without inviting aboriginal leaders to the table. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. Introduction. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. This led to protests known as Women's War. Before 1898, the scramble for Africa by European countries led to the partition of Africa after the Berlin conference of 1884-85. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Consequently, in 1849, John Beecroft was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from Dahomey to Cameroon. [16] Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area. Britain annexed Lagos in 1861 and established the Oil River Protectorate in 1884. Its architecture was in both Victorian and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the Empire of Brazil and Spanish Cuba. In the immediate post-World War II period, Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the Government of the United Kingdom appoint a consul to cover the region. The British captured Kano in 1903. In her . Non-violent Resistance - In the Year of African Independence, 1961, 17 countries declared themselves independent of colonial powers, most of them non-violently, through protest and/or negotiation . Acephalous . British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul John Beecroft to encourage the overthrow of the regime. Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the Sierra Leone Colony in 1787 as a refuge for freed slaves, the independent missionary movement intended to bring Christianity to the Edo Kingdom, and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based African Association. Early on in colonial rule, for example, Nigerians protested the manner in which water rates and head taxes were collected. While this system had built-in contradictions, over the years the Nigerian system developed into a sophisticated form of local government, especially in the emirates and under the banner of native administration, which became the hallmark of British colonial rule in Africa. [40] By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the Niger Delta for sale to European merchants. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. [18], In 1807, the Parliament of the United Kingdom enacted the Slave Trade Act, prohibiting British subjects from participating in the Atlantic slave trade. [55], Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. To prevent any united opposition to its authority, the British adopted a divide-and-rule policy, keeping Nigerian groups separate from one another as much as possible. Chapter 2 argues that following the transformation of the Northern Nigerian region by the Sokoto Jihad in the nineteenth century, Islamic structures provided the crucial structural and ideological frameworks on which the British colonial administrative system was rationalized in the Northern Nigeria Protectorate in the first half of the twentieth century. Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. This was because; education in Southern Nigeria was already leading to a level of awareness and militancy or resistance to colonial rule. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle classi.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions. Lugard informed the leaders of conquered Sokoto: The Fulani in old times [] conquered this country. In consideration of the foregoing, the said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves not to interfere with any of the native laws or customs of the country, consistently with the maintenance of order and good government [and] agree to pay native owners of land a reasonable amount for any portion they may require. Play off ethnic and social divisions . Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. One 1885 treaty read: We, the undersigned King and Chiefs [] with the view to the bettering of the condition of our country and people, do this day cede to the National Africa Company (Limited), their heirs and assigns, forever, the whole of our territory [] We also give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to settle all native disputes arising from any cause whatever, and we pledge ourselves not to enter into any war with other tribes without the sanction of the said National Africa Company (Limited). Some of them also manned Company stations and served as District Agents.". In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. How did British keep Nigerians from developing organized political resistance. This was used for Britain's main purpose of taking control of the region. [45], A campaign against the Sokoto Caliphate began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. Pre-colonial southern Nigeria was an _____ societey. [72] In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa, Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851", "Northern Nigeria: The Illo Canceller and Borgu Mail" by Ray Harris in. resistance and successfully imposed colonial rule should attest to the point that African military resistance was ineffectual. Armed resistance decreased in the 1920s but protest continued, "characterised by civil rights and civil . After initially adopting an indirect rule approach, in 1906 the British merged the small Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate into a new Colony of Southern Nigeria, and in 1914 that was combined with the Northern Nigeria Protectorate to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problemUnitary v. Federal Statewill probably have become clear. The experiment began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939,[71]. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the Protestant Reformation; the emergence of independent Christian churches in Nigeria (as of black denominations in the United States) was another phase of this history. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.,[47] In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."[48]. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in December 1959; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. Economic hardship caused by the war certainly underlay and even provoked resistance against the colonial authorities. Jaja of Opobo allied with hrs old friends namely Alobo and Onaba to resist the British colonialists in the Niger Delta states. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. We bind ourselves not to have any intercourse with any strangers or foreigners except through the said national African Company (Limited), and we give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to exclude all other strangers and foreigners from their territory at their discretion. The British took an interest in Nigeria because of its resources. [77] Its revenue quickly increased, from 4,424 in 1901 to 274,989 in 1910. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as Marcus Garvey and W.E.B. Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by Shell and British Petroleum. 1324 Words6 Pages. Among his leading lieutenants were Samuel Akintola of Ogbomoso and the Oni of Ife, the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. Critics, including representatives of the Middle Belt who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential separatist movements.[85]. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. This line was extended to Oshogbo, 100 kilometres (62mi) away, in 19051907, and to Zungeru and Minna in 19081911. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC). Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. It, therefore, hired native intermediaries who could conduct diplomacy, trade and intelligence work in the local area. [17] Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local Efik traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. France sold Louisiana to the United States in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain Saint-Domingue from the Haitian Revolution. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. Background: Attitudes Towards Policing The period from the mid-1800s to the early 1900s marked the zenith of imperial rule in Africa. Nigeria: A Country Study. By. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out. [67], This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the Fulani emirs of the Sokoto Caliphate. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. ", Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than 1,500 kilometres (930mi), passing through the western portions of the Sokoto Caliphate, before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near Bussa. In these territories, violent resistance brought colonial rule to a close. [43][44] The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy. practice of indirect rule, Brown contends that culture industries like Nollywood can sustain capitalism . Anticolonialism in the twentieth and twenty-first century refers to two interconnected concepts: a historical event and a critical analytic. European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the cowrie, which was already valued locally. Rebellions Against Colonial Rule Before the Second World War. Frederick Lugard, who assumed the position of high commissioner of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria in 1900, often has been regarded as the model British colonial administrator. [56], Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities. Nigeria did not come into being until 1914, when the consort of a colonial Governor-General, Flora Shaw and her man, the fascist Lord Lugard willed and named Nigeria into being, with the dubious . Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.[67]. British influence in the Niger area increased gradually over the . The most important of these was a near fetish with indirect rule that was supposed to facilitate a cheap and effective ruling strategy. "Specifically, the Company sought to secure the cooperation of the traditional rulers in ensuring peaceful conditions for trade. Colonial Nigeria was ruled by the British Empire from the mid-nineteenth century until 1960 when Nigeria achieved independence. David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Ptr-Grenouilleau. 1. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. . Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. After the British government assumed direct control of the Royal Niger Companys territories, the northern areas were renamed the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, and the land in the Niger delta and along the lower reaches of the river was added to the Niger Coast Protectorate, which was renamed the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria. Antrobus, Fiddes and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. One continues to wonder how a national history could be attained Lost land and independence died of diseases that euro bring Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories. Native institutions were utilized and interference with local customs kept to a minimum, although the British did not always understand the local customs. Robin Hermann, "Empire Builders and Mushroom Gentlemen: The Meaning of Money in Colonial Nigeria". A new constitution was created in 1922 under British colonial rule, largely due to Nigerian calls for reform. The Royal Navy bombarded Lagos in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a treaty with the newly installed Oba Akintoye, who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. The conditions that led African peoples to resist colonial rule often emerged from longstanding grievances against colonial labor exploitation taxation racist and paternalist practices arbitrary violence and political illegitimacy. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Bright Alozie. Sir Richmond Palmer, acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation. Locally this involved the immediate invasion of the German-held Kamerun (Cameroon) by Nigerian forces, followed by a costly campaign that lasted until 1916. Most of these came from military backgrounds. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. [73] An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits. Much of the human trafficking which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.[68]. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the West Indies, India, and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. However, in October 1929 in Oloko a census related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". By the end of World War I, most of Africa had been effectively colonized. The appointment of Joseph Chamberlain as colonial secretary in 1895 especially marked a shift towards new territorial ambitions of the British Empire. [11][12], The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in Nigeria to the present day.[13]. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. Ajay. ", Helen Chapin Metz, ed. After the Berlin Conference of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the Oil Rivers Protectorate, which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. Scramble for Africa by European countries led to the traditional power structure rivalries on the ground of perceived by. Hrs old friends namely Alobo and Onaba to resist the British took an interest in Nigeria made. 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